举例谈学习心理学的价值（A-level心理学知识点笔记整理）

举例谈学习心理学的价值（A-level心理学知识点笔记整理）A supporting study showed that participants with high empathic concern were more likely than those with low empathic concern to take the place of someone receiving electric shocks even if they could easily reduce their personal distress by leaving (Batson et al. 1981).一个利己主义者帮助使他/她自己感觉更好，而一个利他主义者由于移情关注的结果而帮助使受困者感觉更好。We empathise with people in distress which motivates us to help relieve the pers

Introduction 简介

Altruism is an example of pro-social behaviour and can be defined as helping someone at a cost to yourself. Much debate surrounds this topic as it is often unclear whether a behaviour is motivated by altruism or egoism (seeking personal reward).

利他主义是亲社会行为的一个例子，可以被定义为以自己为代价来帮助别人。围绕这个话题有很多争论，因为人们往往不清楚一种行为的动机是利他主义还是利己主义（寻求个人回报）。

(Note: See topic on "Determinants of animal behaviour" for biological explanations of altruism; kin selection and reciprocal altruism).

(注：见 "动物行为的决定因素 "专题，了解利他主义的生物学解释；亲属选择和互惠的利他主义）。

Empathy-altruism hypothesis 移情-利他主义假说

We empathise with people in distress which motivates us to help relieve the person's distress (Bateson 1991). The reason for helping could be egoistic or altruistic depending how we feel.

我们同情处于困境中的人，这促使我们帮助缓解这个人的困境（Bateson 1991）。帮助的原因可能是利己的，也可能是利他的，取决于我们的感受。

An egoist helps to make him/herself feel better and an altruist helps as a result of empathic concern to make the distressed person feel better.

一个利己主义者帮助使他/她自己感觉更好，而一个利他主义者由于移情关注的结果而帮助使受困者感觉更好。

A supporting study showed that participants with high empathic concern were more likely than those with low empathic concern to take the place of someone receiving electric shocks even if they could easily reduce their personal distress by leaving (Batson et al. 1981).

一项支持性研究显示，具有高移情关注的参与者比低移情关注的参与者更有可能代替接受电击的人，即使他们可以很容易地通过离开来减少他们的个人痛苦（Batson等人，1981）。

It has been suggested that it is naïve to assume that humans behave in ways that are not self-serving (Darley 1991). But there is much evidence to suggest that people are prepared to help others even if there are no rewards for such behaviours (Fultz et al. 1986).

有人认为，假设人类的行为不是为自己服务的，是很幼稚的（Darley 1991）。但是有很多证据表明，即使这种行为没有回报，人们也准备帮助他人（Fultz等人，1986）。

Negative-state relief model 消极状态缓解模式

All helping behaviours are motivated by the desire to relieve personal distress whether or not it is caused by the presence of someone in need of help. But help will only be given if the personal distress cannot be relieved by anything else such as walking away (Cialdini et al. 1987). This means there is no altruism only egoism.

所有的帮助行为都是出于缓解个人痛苦的愿望，无论这种痛苦是否是由需要帮助的人的存在引起的。但是，只有在个人痛苦无法通过其他方式缓解的情况下才会给予帮助，例如走开（Cialdini等人，1987）。这意味着不存在利他主义，只有利己主义。

Chialdini's experiments also involved participants taking the place of people receiving electric shocks. However high empathy participants were less inclined to help if they had been praised by the researchers. It is thought that this praise helped to lift their mood so that it was not necessary to help the person receiving the shocks.

齐亚尔迪尼的实验还涉及参与者代替接受电击的人。然而，如果研究人员对他们进行了表扬，高同理心的参与者就不太愿意帮忙。人们认为，这种赞美有助于提高他们的情绪，因此没有必要帮助被电击的人。

Some support for Batson's theory stems from the fact that some participants did still help the person receiving the electric shocks. This suggests that they were motivated by altruism rather than egoism.

Batson的理论得到了一些支持，因为一些参与者仍然帮助接受电击的人。这表明他们的动机是利他主义而不是利己主义。

Cognitive model of bystander behaviour 旁观者行为的认知模型

You are probably aware of the tragic tale of Kitty Genovese the young New Yorker who was brutally murdered in 1964. Thirty-eight people heard or observed her ordeal which lasted more than half an hour. No-one contacted the police in that time let alone went to her aid. Why not?

你可能知道Kitty Genovese的悲惨故事，这位年轻的纽约人在1964年被残忍地杀害了。有38人听到或看到了她的遭遇，这持续了半个多小时。在这段时间里，没有人与警方联系，更不用说去帮助她了。为什么不呢？

Latané & Darley (1968) suggested three reasons for a bystander not intervening to help.

Latané和Darley（1968）提出了旁观者不干预帮助的三个原因。

Term 术语 :	Definition 定义 :
Pluralistic ignorance 多元化的无知	Each bystander looks to the others to see how to behave. If no one acts then the situation is interpreted as not an emergency and no help is given. 每个旁观者都向其他人看，看如何行事。如果没有人采取行动，那么这种情况就会被解释为不是紧急情况，也不会给予帮助。
Audience inhibition 听众的抑制作用	People do not want to look foolish in public by over-reacting to potentially safe situations. 人们不希望在公共场合对潜在的安全情况作出过度反应而显得愚蠢。
Diffusion of responsibility 责任的散布	When other people are present people assume someone else will deal with the situation. 当其他人在场时，人们会认为其他人会处理这种情况。

These notions are supported by evidence that participants on their own are more likely to react to smoke filling a room or someone having an epileptic seizure than if they are in company (Latané & Darley 1968).

这些概念得到了证据的支持，即与有同伴的情况相比，独自一人的参与者更有可能对烟雾弥漫的房间或癫痫发作的人做出反应（Latané & Darley 1968）。

Latané & Darley (1970) attempted to explain the action (or inaction) of bystanders in terms of a series of decisions. Help is only given if the bystander answers all five of the questions positively.

Latané和Darley（1970）试图用一系列的决定来解释旁观者的行动（或不行动）。只有当旁观者对所有五个问题的回答都是肯定的，才会给予帮助。

Evaluation 评价 :

1. This model gives good reasons why bystanders may not intervene but does not explain the motives of people who do help. 这个模型给出了旁观者可能不干预的很好的理由，但并没有解释那些帮助的人的动机。
2. Factors other than the presence of other people inhibit helping behaviour (Piliavin et al. 1981). 除了其他人的存在之外，其他因素也会抑制帮助行为（Piliavin等人，1981）。

The arousal:cost-reward model of bystander behaviour 旁观者行为的唤醒：成本-回报模型

A study carried out on the New York subway showed that people were more likely to help 'blind' rather than 'drunk' confederates who had collapsed (Piliavin 1969). According to Piliavin et al. (1981) two factors need to be considered when explaining the bystanders' helping behaviour 在纽约地铁上进行的一项研究表明，人们更有可能帮助 "盲人 "而不是 "醉汉 "倒下的同伴（Piliavin 1969）。根据Piliavin等人（1981）的研究，在解释旁观者的帮助行为时需要考虑两个因素:

People are more likely to help someone if the costs are low and the rewards are high. This is an egoistic explanation because the potential helper is motivated by self-interest. However evidence exists that altruism may also motivate helping behaviour (Batson et al. 1981). In fact Piliavin has since recognised the existence of altruistic behaviours in humans (Piliavin & Chang 1990).

如果成本低，回报高，人们就更有可能帮助别人。这是一种利己主义的解释，因为潜在的帮助者是受自我利益的驱使。然而，有证据表明，利他主义也可能激励帮助行为（Batson等人，1981）。事实上，Piliavin后来也承认人类存在利他主义行为（Piliavin & Chang 1990）。

Cultural differences in pro-social behaviour 亲社会行为的文化差异

Whiting & Whiting (1975) compared the levels of altruism in 3 to 10 year olds in 6 different cultures. The results showed significant differences.

Whiting & Whiting (1975)比较了6种不同文化中3至10岁儿童的利他主义水平。结果显示了显著的差异。

It has been suggested that there are two reasons for cultural differences in altruism (Eisenberg & Mussen 1989) 有人认为，利他主义的文化差异有两个原因（Eisenberg & Mussen 1989）:

1. Industrial societies place value on competition and personal success. 工业社会看重竞争和个人成功。
2. Co-operation at the home in non-industrial societies promotes altruism. 非工业社会中的家庭合作促进了利他主义。

Within many cultures across the world rural areas seem to have higher incidences of altruistic behaviours than urban areas. However moving from the city to the country may lead to a person becoming more altruistic perhaps because they have fewer factors demanding their time (Milgram 1970).

在世界各地的许多文化中，农村地区似乎比城市地区有更高的利他主义行为发生率。然而，从城市搬到乡村可能会导致一个人变得更加利他，也许是因为他们需要的时间因素更少（Milgram 1970）。

Problems with cross-cultural research include 跨文化研究的问题包括 :

1. Few studies follow the same method in each culture. 很少有研究在每种文化中遵循相同的方法。
2. What is meant by 'help' differs across cultures as do the motives for giving help. 不同文化中 "帮助 "的含义不同，给予帮助的动机也不同。